A Research Focus of the Urban Institute
A committed legal union between two people offers many benefits, especially to children, which is why UI researchers examine this social structure in its conventional and unconventional forms.
About the Research
Much more than romance, in today's world marriage is a contract that guarantees benefits and protections for partners and their children. With two married biological parents, children are less likely to be poor, exhibit behavioral problems, struggle in school, and engage in risky conduct than children in any other living arrangement. Yet, tax penalties and other financial drawbacks come with marriage too. For low-income families, marriage can cut public benefits such as welfare. Still, the recital of vows may raise two workers above the poverty line. For better or worse, marriage deserves a closer look.
The Bush administration has proposed a $1.5 billion Healthy Marriage Initiative. Despite the many advantages enjoyed by married couples, this initiative raises some controversy over whether government should be involved in such deeply personal matters. Critics question whether encouraged marriages might increase domestic violence among financially strapped couples. Other questions emerge. Can this money improve people's lives? And, if the goal is to help children in families struggling to leave welfare behind, would the money be better spent on health and education programs for their children? Interventions being evaluated include programs for unmarried couples at the time they have a child. Other federal programs studied at Urban Institute are "Community Healthy Marriage" initiatives on helping people form and sustain healthy marriages.
One group of parents, same-sex couples, can tie the knot in only one state. According to census figures, if all same-sex couples that identified themselves either as already married or as unmarried partners were to legally marry tomorrow, they would be less than one in 100 married couples in the United States. Yet, for members of this small group, lack of a marriage license may cost tens of thousands of dollars—and the loss of a home—when a partner dies. (For more information on gay- and lesbian-couple demographics, click here)
Thinking Outside the Beltway: Opportunities and Challenges for Healthy Marriage Services
Family structure changed rapidly in the second half of the 20th century. Two-parent families increasingly were replaced by other family forms, divorce became common, births out of wedlock increased, and cohabiting couples became widespread. Marriage declined most in poor communities. Under the 1996 welfare legislation, states were urged to promote marriage, reduce out-of-wedlock childbearing, and support two-parent families. Panelists at this June 7 forum explored how states and communities might implement these programs in various settings, how service systems for low-income families can also promote marriage and relationships, and what challenges to expect in responding to the circumstances of low-income people.
Full transcript
Marriages Made in Political Heaven: Families, Values, and the Election
While the Healthy Marriage proposal awaits Senate approval as part of welfare reform's reauthorization, civil unions and same-sex marriage are being debated everywhere voters turn. In May 2004, this First Tuesday forum explored questions about marriage in the policy arena: Can support for healthy marriages improve family and child well-being? How do same-sex couples resemble and differ from heterosexual cohabiting and married couples?
Full transcript
Recent Findings
Below are results from our recent studies, reports, articles, and books.
Marriage brings stability and economic gains for mothers and children.
A large body of evidence points to the economic and social gains associated with marriage, when all else is equal. The positives include family income, wealth, mental health, longevity, happiness, and the success of children. Analysis of the Urban Institute's National Survey of America's Families confirms that being in a married two-parent family protects against hardship, no matter what the family's immigration status, race, education level, and member ages. Fewer than 4 percent of married two-parent families could not afford their rent and regular meals. The rates were two to three times higher for cohabitating and single parents.
Single parenthood remains a crucial factor in keeping child poverty at alarmingly high 1970s levels. Even after poverty rates declined during the 1990s, 35 percent of families headed by single mothers experienced poverty while about 6 percent of married couples with children had incomes below the poverty line. Other evidence suggests that children growing up without two parents do worse in school and face more material hardship.
Do the economic benefits of marriage extend to low-income, less-educated women? Research shows that they do. While pairing off with another adult with no or low earnings would hardly be a solution, a second earner need only provide $2,000–$3,700 annually to be a financial plus to the household.
Even later in life, many single women are likely to face economic challenges because they have worked and saved comparatively little. Urban Institute results show that women who spent 10 or more years raising children outside of marriage are 55 percent more likely be poor at ages 65 to 75 than women who were always married when their children were young.
For more information:
- Ahituv, Avner and Robert Lerman. 2004. "Job Turnover, Wage Rates, and Marital Stability: How Are They Related?" Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
- Butrica, Barbara A., and Howard M. Iams. 2000. "Divorced Women at Retirement: Projections of Economic Well-Being in the Near Future." Social Security Bulletin. 63(3): 3–12.
- Butrica, Barbara A., and Howard M. Iams. 2003. "The Impact of Minority Group Status on the Projected Retirement Income of Divorced Women in the Baby Boom Cohort." Journal of Women & Aging. 15(2/3): 67–88.
- Johnson, Richard W., and Melissa M. Favreault. 2004. "Economic Status in Later Life among Women Who Raised Children Outside of Marriage." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. [link will take you to Journals of Gerontology web site]
- Lerman, Robert I. 2002. "Marriage and the Economic Well-Being of Families with Children: A Review of the Literature." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
- Lerman, Robert I. 2002. "Married and Unmarried Parenthood and Economic Well-Being: A Dynamic Analysis of a Recent Cohort." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
- Lerman, Robert I. 2002. "Impacts of Marital Status and Parental Presence on the Material Hardship of Families with Children." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
- Lerman, Robert I. 2002. "How Do Marriage, Cohabitation, and Single Parenthood Affect the Material Hardships of Families with Children?" Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
Successful marriage skills aimed at cohabitating parents could improve children's lives, but the extent is unknown.
The 1996 welfare reform law launched the idea of using government policies to support those who choose marriage as a means of reducing poverty and making life better for children. Cohabiting couples, especially those with offspring, became logical targets for such efforts since their numbers increased by over 70 percent during the 1990s. By some estimates, 4 out of every 10 children will spend some time in a cohabitating family before turning 16.
Urban Institute researchers found that married and cohabitating families differ in poverty relief, low-income status, and worry about finding the next meal. By and large, these differences—including greater parental aggravation and poorer mental health among cohabitating families—will persist after marriage, at least in the short run. Despite this, UI research suggests that successful programs to encourage marriage among cohabitating couples with children could alleviate some of these problems.
UI findings also suggest that current programs to encourage marriage through state and national policies may have different results for black, Hispanic, and white families. For instance, policies to help couples stay married will affect a smaller share of black children than white or Hispanic children.
For more information:
- Acs, Gregory, and Sandi Nelson. 2004. What Do "I Do's" Do? Potential Benefits of Marriage for Cohabitating Couples with Children Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. New Federalism: National Survey of America's Families.
- Acs, Gregory, and Sandi Nelson. 2004. Should We Get Married in the Morning? A Profile of Cohabitating Couples with Children. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Assessing the New Federalism Discussion Paper 04-01.
- Acs, Gregory, and Sandi Nelson. 2002. "The Kids Are Alright? Children's Well-Being and the Rise in Cohabitation." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. New Federalism: National Survey of America's Families.
- Wherry, Laura, and Kenneth Finegold. 2004. "Marriage Promotion and the Living Arrangements of Black, Hispanic, and White Children." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. New Federalism: National Survey of America's Families.
Eliminating marriage penalties is a strong marriage endorsement.
Research findings that link unmarried parenthood and childhood poverty make marriage-skills programs worth considering. The link also calls into question policies discouraging marriage. Among poor families who wed, "marriage penalties" can phase out a couple's benefits faster. Congress did move in 2001 to solve this problem. For example, the earned income tax credit (EITC) now phases out at a higher income level for married couples than for single parents.
Recent UI research has found that about one-quarter of low-income couples would suffer tax penalties if they were to marry, with an average penalty reaching $1,428. By 2008, the share of low-income cohabitors facing tax penalties will fall to 10.5 percent because of recent tax law changes.
However, for some families, the potential loss of cash welfare benefits under TANF may be a greater financial barrier to marriage than any tax bonus or penalty.
For more information:
- Carasso, Adam, and C. Eugene Steuerle. 2005. "The Hefty Penalty on Marriage Facing Many Households with Children."
- Acs, Greg, and E. Maag. 2005. "Irreconcilable Differences? The Conflict Between Marriage Promotion Initiatives for Cohabiting Couples with Children and Marriage Penalties in Tax and Transfer Programs." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
- Burman, Leonard E. "Marriage Penalty Relief Throws Millions onto the AMT." Broadcast on public radio's Marketplace. April 27, 2004.
- Carasso, Adam, and C. Eugene Steuerle. 2002. "Saying 'I Do' after the 2001 Tax Cuts." Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Urban-Brookings Tax Policy Center Tax Policy Issues and Options.
- Favreault, Melissa M., Frank J. Sammartino, and C. Eugene Steuerle. 2002. Social Security and the Family. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
- Lerman, Robert. 2002. "Should Government Promote Healthy Marriages?" Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Short Takes on Welfare Policy.
Rigorous evaluations of marriage programs are needed.
Some states are poised to develop and provide programs to support healthy marriages, as called for by the Bush administration. The Urban Institute has been collecting information on the range of marriage programs currently available. We also convened a meeting of experts in the field of marriage programming and service delivery. Based on these findings, we propose connecting the expertise of marriage program services with low-income population services. If political support for these programs is to grow, evidence that they work for the right populations will be critical.
For more information:
The Research Team
Many Urban Institute researchers contribute to analyses on the institution of marriage, its benefits to low-income families, and whether government initiatives can work. They are
- Greg Acs, senior research associate, an expert in family living arrangement trends, social insurance, social welfare, and worker compensation;
- Barbara Butrica, senior research associate, an economist and expert in retirement and Social Security;
- Adam Carasso, research associate, an analyst in tax, transfer, and retirement policy;
- Jennifer Ehrle Macomber, research associate, an expert in family structure and child well-being;
- Linda D. Giannarelli, senior research associate, an expert in microsimulation, taxes, and cash assistance;
- Robert Lerman, senior fellow, an economist and expert in family structure and composition, unwed fathers, and welfare reform;
- Elaine Maag, research associate, an expert on tax policies for low-income families;
- Sandi Nelson, research associate, an expert on changes in the living arrangements of children;
- Jason Ost, research associate, an expert in gay and lesbian demographic analysis and mapping;
- Elaine Sorensen, principal research associate, an expert in child support/paternity, noncustodial fathers, and single-parent families;
- Matthew W. Stagner, center director, an expert in child well-being and human services;
- Eugene Steuerle, senior fellow, an economist and expert in Social Security, tax policy, and income transfer policy.
Publications
The Urban Institute disseminates many marriage research publications.
